Antarctica

§1. Antarctica Introduction

Background:
  Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until
  the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British
  and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula
  region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it
  established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of
  islands. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th
  century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific
  research on the continent. A number of countries have set up year-round
  research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but
  not all countries recognize these claims. In order to form a legal
  framework for the activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic
  Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing
  territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.

§2. Antarctica Geography

Location:
  continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle

Geographic coordinates:
  90 00 S, 0 00 E

Map references:
  Antarctic_Region

Area:
  total: 14 million kmē
  land: 14 million kmē (280,000 kmē ice-free, 13.72 million kmē ice-covered)
    (est.)
  note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and
    South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent of Europe

Area - comparative:
  slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US

Land boundaries:
  0 km
  note: see entry on Disputes - international

Coastline:
  17,968 km

Maritime claims:
  Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights
  or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims,
  but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other
  countries; 21 of 28 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to
  Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US have reserved the right to
  do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the
  Disputes - international entry

Climate:
  severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from
  the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its
  higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher
  temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below
  freezing

Terrain:
  about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
  elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to nearly
  5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria
  Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island
  on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the
  coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the
  continent

Elevation extremes:
  lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
  highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
  note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Bentley
    Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and
    the world's lowest elevation not under seawater

Natural resources:
  iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and
  coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial quantities;
  none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by
  commercial fisheries

Land use:
  arable land: 0%
  permanent crops: 0%
  other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (2005)

Natural hazards:
  katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior;
  frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form
  over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception
  Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare
  and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf

Environment - current issues:
  in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the
  largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in
  1997 found that increased ultraviolet light passing through the hole
  damages the DNA of icefish, an Antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone
  depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in
  2002, significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to
  regional warming

Geography - note:
  the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during
  summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is
  received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable

§3. Antarctica People

Population:
  no indigenous inhabitants, but there are both permanent and summer-only
  staffed research stations
  note: 26 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, operate through
    their National Antarctic Program a number of seasonal-only (summer) and
    year-round research stations on the continent and its nearby islands
    south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic
    Treaty); these stations' population of persons doing and supporting
    science or engaged in the management and protection of the Antarctic
    region varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in
    addition, approximately 1,000 personnel, including ship's crew and
    scientists doing onboard research, are present in the waters of the
    treaty region; peak summer (December-February) population - 3,822 total;
    Argentina 417, Australia 213, Brazil 40, Bulgaria 15, Chile 224, China
    70, Ecuador 22, Finland 20, France 123, Germany 78, India 65, Italy 112,
    Japan 150, South Korea 60, NZ 85, Norway 44, Peru 28, Poland 40, Russia
    429, South Africa 80, Spain 28, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 205, US 1,170,
    Uruguay 60 (2005-2006); winter (June-August) station population - 1,028
    total; Argentina 176, Australia 62, Brazil 12, Chile 88, China 29, France
    37, Germany 9, India 25, Italy 2, Japan 40, South Korea 15, NZ 10, Norway
    7, Poland 12, Russia 148, South Africa 10, Ukraine 12, UK 37, US 288,
    Uruguay 9 (2005); research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty
    area (south of 60 degrees south latitude) by
  members of the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP):
    year-round stations - 37 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile
    3, China 2, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1,
    Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3,
    Uruguay 1, Italy and France jointly 1 (2005); seasonal-only (summer)
    stations - 15 total; Australia 1, Bulgaria 1, Chile 1, Ecuador 1, Finland
    1, Germany 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, Norway 1, Peru 1, Russia 1, Spain 2,
    Sweden 1, UK 1 (2005-2006); in addition, during the austral summer some
    nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long
    temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research

§4. Antarctica Government

Country name:
  conventional long form: none
  conventional short form: Antarctica

Government type:
  Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959
  and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for
  the management of Antarctica; the 28th Antarctic Treaty Consultative
  Meeting was held in Stockholm, Sweden in June 2005; at these periodic
  meetings, decisions are made by consensus (not by vote) of
  all consultative member nations; at the end of 2005, there were 45 treaty
    member nations: 28 consultative and 17 non- consultative; consultative
    (decision-making) members include the seven nations that claim portions
    of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 21
    non-claimant nations; the US and Russia have reserved the right to make
    claims; the US does not recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is
    administered through meetings of the consultative member nations;
    decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations
    (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with
    their own national laws; the years in parentheses indicate when a
    consultative member-nation acceded to the Treaty and when it was accepted
    as a consultative member, while no date indicates the country was an
    original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina,
    Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
    consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1975/1983), Bulgaria (1978/
    1998) China (1983/1985), Ecuador (1987/1990), Finland (1984/1989),
    Germany (1979/1981), India (1983/1983), Italy (1981/1987), Japan, South
    Korea (1986/1989), Netherlands (1967/1990), Peru (1981/1989), Poland
    (1961/1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1982/1988), Sweden (1984/1988),
    Ukraine (1992/2004), Uruguay (1980/1985), and the US; non- consultative
    members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987),
    Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1962/1993),
    Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary
    (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971),
    Slovakia (1962/1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1996), and Venezuela
    (1999); note - Czechoslovakia acceded to the Treaty in 1962 and separated
    into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993; Article 1 - area to be used
    for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing,
    is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for
    scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of
    scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free
    exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other
    international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or
    establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while
    the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or
    disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all
    land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves
    high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access,
    including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations,
    installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of
    the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows
    for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;
    Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member
    nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any
    country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 -
    disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or,
    ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding,
    interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations; other
    agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative
    meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna
    and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental
    Protocol; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972);
    Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
    (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains
    unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic
    Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998;
  this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment
    through six specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2)
    conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste
    management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area protection and
    management and 6) liability arising from environmental emergencies; it
    prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific
    research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in
    2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina

Legal system:
  Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member
  nations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member
  nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance
  with their own national laws; US law, including certain criminal offenses
  by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extraterritorially;
  some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic
  Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and
  criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by
  regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the
    introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially
    protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the
    importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of
    the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in
    fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and
    Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law
    95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996,
    requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the
    Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520,
    which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic
    Treaty; for more information, contact Permit Office,
  Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia
    22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit their website at www.nsf.gov;
    more generally, access to the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas
    between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of
    relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the
    states party to the Antarctic Treaty

§5. Antarctica Economy

Economy - overview:
  Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for
  Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2003-04 (1
  July-30 June) reported landing 136,262 metric tons (estimated fishing from
  the area covered by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
  Living Resources (CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic
  Treaty area). Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish, is
  a serious problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limits for
  marine species. A total of 23,175 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic
  summer, up from the 19,486 visitors the previous year. Nearly all of them
  were passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts
  that make trips during the summer. Most tourist trips last approximately
  two weeks.

§6. Antarctica Communications

Telephones - main lines in use:
  0; note - information for US bases only (2001)

Telephones - mobile cellular:
  NA

Telephone system:
  general assessment: local systems at some research stations
  domestic: commercial cellular networks operating in a small number of
    locations
  international: country code - 672; via satellite (including mobile Inmarsat
    and Iridium systems) from all research stations, ships, aircraft, and
    most field parties

Radio broadcast stations:
  AM NA, FM 2, shortwave 1, note - information for US bases only (2002)

Television broadcast stations:
  1 (cable system with six channels; American Forces Antarctic
  Network-McMurdo)
  note: information for US bases only (2002)

Internet country code:
  .aq

Internet hosts:
  8,018 (2005)

§7. Antarctica Transportation

Airports:
  28
  note: there are no developed public access airports or landing facilities;
    28 stations or remote field locations, operated by 11 National Antarctic
    Programs from nations party to the Antarctic Treaty, have restricted
    aircraft landing facilities comprising a total of 11 runways and 22
    skiways for fixed-wing aircraft; some stations have both runways and
    skiways; commercial enterprises operate two aircraft landing facilities
    at one station; helicopter pads are available at all 37 year-round and 15
    seasonal stations operated by National Antarctic Programs; the 11 runways
  are suitable for wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft: three are gravel, four
    blue-ice, two sea-ice and two compacted snow; of these, five are 3 km in
    length, two are between 2 km and 3 km in length, three are between 1 km
    and 2 km in length and one is less than 1 km in length; the 22 snow
    surface skiways are limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft;
    of these, three are equal to or greater than 3 km in length, one is
    between 2 km and 3 km in length, nine are between 1 km and 2 km in
    length, five are less than 1 km in length, and four are of unknown or
    variable length; snow surface skiways are generally prepared and
    maintained during specific periods only and during summer; all aircraft
    landing facilities subject to severe restrictions and limitations
    resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; aircraft
    landing facilities do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the
    respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization
    required for using their facilities; landed aircraft are subject to
    inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; guidelines for
    the operation of aircraft near concentrations of birds in Antarctica were
    adopted in 2004; relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures
    adopted by states party to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access to the
    Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of
    latitude South, have to be complied with (see information under "Legal
    System"); an Antarctic Flight Information Manual (AFIM) providing
    up-to-date details of Antarctic air facilities and procedures is
    maintained and published by the Council of Managers of National Antarctic
    Programs (2006)

Airports - with unpaved runways:
  total: 28
  over 3,047 m: 1
  2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
  1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
  914 to 1,523 m: 10
  under 914 m: 4
  length unknown or variable: 4 (2006)

Heliports:
  37
  note: all 37 year-round and 15 seasonal stations operated by National
    Antarctic Programs stations have restricted helicopter landing facilities
    (helipads) (2006)

Ports and terminals:
  there are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal
  stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship
  to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a
  basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40
  E), and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by permit
  (see Permit Office under "Legal System"); all ships at port are subject to
  inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; offshore
  anchorage is sparse and intermittent; relevant legal instruments and
  authorization procedures adopted by the states parties to the Antarctic
  Treaty regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area, to all areas between
  60 and 90 degrees of latitude south, have to be complied with (see "Legal
  System"); Antarctica (HCA), a special hydrographic commission of
  International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), is responsible for
  hydrographic surveying and nautical charting matters in Antarctic Treaty
  area; it coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate and appropriate
  charts and other aids to navigation in support of safety of navigation in
  region; membership of HCA is open to any IHO Member State whose government
  has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and which contributes resources and/or
  data to IHO Chart coverage of the area; members of HCA are Argentina,
  Australia, Chile, China, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, New
  Zealand, Norway, Russia, South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom (2005)

§8. Antarctica Military

Military - note:
  the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as
  the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of
  military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the
  use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any
  other peaceful purposes

§9. Antarctica Transnational Issues

Disputes - international:
  Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government
  type entry); Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK claim
  land and maritime sectors (some overlapping) for a large portion of the
  continent; the US and many other states do not recognize these territorial
  claims and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the
  right to do so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees
  west and 150 degrees west; several states with territorial claims in
  Antarctica have expressed their intention to submit data to the UN
  Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf to extend their
  continental shelf claims to adjoining undersea ridges


<Factbook 2006>
